Researchers from Northwestern University and the University of Bern have published findings from a cross-temporal, multinational study examining gender stereotypes over a 30-year period. The research, which replicated and expanded on a 1995 Gallup poll across 22 nations with a new survey in 2023 covering 40 countries, aimed to understand the roots of common beliefs about men and women.
The study found that across all surveyed nations and both time points, respondents described men as more agentic—showing ambition and competitiveness—while women were seen as more communal, displaying warmth and caring. These perceptions correspond closely to the social roles typically held by each gender in homes and workplaces.
Lead author Christa Nater of the University of Bern explained, "The persistence of the agentic male stereotype across the world reflects men's continuous overrepresentation in the most prominent and high-status roles, such as CEOs of large corporations. In fact, although women have increasingly attained such leadership roles, these tend to be in organizations that have a more communal mission, such as executives in nonprofit and educational organizations." She added that male dominance in physically demanding occupations like firefighting or policing also reinforces this stereotype.
The study also noted that the stereotype of women as communal is stronger in countries where women are more often found in jobs related to teaching or caregiving. "Even now, there is an easily recognized gender division of labor in the workplace and the home that accounts for the communal theme in stereotypes of women and the agentic theme in stereotypes of men," said Alice Eagly, professor emerita at Northwestern University. "Gender stereotypes are not fiction. They represent what we observe in our daily life."
Stereotypes regarding competence—including intelligence and creativity—were found to align with higher education trends: as more women obtain college degrees globally, perceptions about competence between genders have become more equal.
The researchers concluded that changing gender stereotypes requires changes in actual social roles. "This means that efforts to end gender stereotypes can be effective only if women and men gain more similar positions and roles," Nater said.
In societies where women had greater political representation or led government agencies, people attributed greater communal qualities—but not increased agency—to women. According to researchers, this may be because female leaders are often associated with agencies focused on family or children rather than finance or defense.
The study highlighted potential negative effects of these stereotypes on individuals who do not conform to traditional expectations. "Stereotypes can make people who do not fit expectations appear not just surprising, but unacceptable, leading to disapproval, for example, of a woman who excels as an aerospace engineer or a man who is a caring teacher of young children," Nater said.
Eagly added that these beliefs can hinder equal opportunity: "Gender stereotypes tend to discourage equal opportunity and disregard talent that challenges what has been typical of men and women."
To address these issues, policies such as parental leave for fathers and improved childcare options for working mothers were suggested by researchers. Automation was also cited as opening up new opportunities for women in previously male-dominated fields. Encouraging qualified men into traditionally female-dominated professions could further weaken entrenched stereotypes. "Also helpful is government policy that challenges gender discrimination and promotes equal opportunity," Eagly said.
